How environmental threats are influencing federal and state governments Essay

Executive Summary Introduction Environmental threats are influencing federal and state governments including other agencies such as universities to investigate how other social and governance aspects can be incorporated into the sustainability framework. Little critical inquiry exists on this topic and a paradigm shift is attempting to integrate and use Indigenous knowledge to inform contemporary environmental policy decisions and management solutions. Binthi Wambal Aboriginal Corporation’s case study is an example of how complex this topic is. Context Paradigm shifts are taking into consideration Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) to be incorporated into sustainability frameworks in a context where little critical analysis has taken place. Much of this participatory approach is a new methodology used to work with Indigenous groups highlighting the uniqueness and complexities of incorporating these governance structures within legislative frameworks including the ethical considerations and mistrust towards governments. Report Reviews Reviews of 3 authoritative sources pertaining to Indigenous governance and sustainability show that there is a dichotomy between western science and Traditional Ecological Knowledge and that recommendations need to be taken into account for improved management. Case Study and Recommendations: Binthi Wambal Aboriginal Corporation (BWAC) Operating as a small organisation in a remote region, BWAC have the ability to manage their affairs but are under-resourced and does not receive an income to manage the issues and problems that are affecting their objectives to achieve their aims. This section addresses the issues and problems experienced by BWAC and what they would have to change to manage these problems. Conclusion The review of governance issues and indicators of knowledge integration  across the types supports that Indigenous governance and Indigenous-driven co-governance are important factors towards the integration of IEK and western science for sustainability of social-ecological systems. This report highlights that there are challenges towards achieving sustainability highlighting recommendations to take into consideration as evidenced with BWAC’s experience. Introduction This report reviews three authoritative journals pertaining to Aboriginal environmental, governance and social aspects of sustainability to analyse the roles of values and culture on understanding of attitudes towards behaviours relevant to sustainability and business. First, an overview of the context reviewing the general literature on values, culture and sustainability pertaining will be provided. Next, recommendations to link cultural value systems and sustainability to improve relationships to modern governance, local council, various agencies and researchers for improved co-management systems will be analysed. The case study of Binthi Wambal Aboriginal Corporation (BWAC) as an enterprise will be presented to highlight the complexities of this issue and describe a set of recommendations to change how the enterprise can manage cultural differences in sustainability strategies. This case study illustrates the dilemmas and difficulties to achieve a consensus of cross-cultural work to local co-manager efforts to translate across knowledge systems and the knowledge-action divide. Environmental threats are influencing federal and state government including other agencies such as universities to investigate how other social and governance aspects can be incorporated into the sustainability framework. Little critical inquiry exists on this topic and a paradigm shift is attempting to integrate and use Indigenous Knowledge (IK) to inform contemporary environmental policy decisions and management solutions. How can the interactions between scientific and Indigenous Knowledge (IK) systems be effectively negotiated for the joint management of social-ecological systems? This is an important question because on Indigenous lands where co-management efforts respond to pressing conservation agendas the contribution of scientific knowledge and IK is required to better under stand and manage complex social-ecological systems. The integration of Indigenous Ecological Knowledge (IEK) and western science  to promote cultural diversity in the management of social-ecological system sustainability offers opportunities for Indigenous peoples to engage with many decentralised approaches to environmental management. Within this context it is important to understand how organisations plan to sustain the whole system so that everyone can benefit for the generations to come. Factors such as the adaptive co-management context, the intrinsic characteristics of the natural resources, and the governance systems affect the diverse processes of combining IEK and western science. Scholars of planning have debated and empirically tested that protected areas therefore provide a context in which many of the ideas and concepts are different. The sharing the burden of management responsibilities have emerged as a potential new paradigm in natural resource planning with developing cooperative relationships with local stakeholde rs. Context The marginalisation and dispossession of Indigenous peoples in Australia, until recent decades, is also attributed to the establishment of protected areas. Participation of Indigenous people in recent conservation planning and country management has enabled them to develop and refine governance and policy frameworks to recognise protected areas as part of Indigenous land and sea country. The co-management of terrestrial protected areas and the declaration and management of Indigenous protected areas is an arena that Australian is internationally pioneering. Further policy and protocol development has not progressed uniformly across Australia due to; Achievement of practical, meaningful social and environmental benefits through conservation agreements and activities. Implications of native title determinations over protected areas; Recognition of Indigenous peoples’ rights and interests in marine protected area management; This process has provided scope for recommendations for improvements to enhance the recognition, respect and rights of Traditional Owners as protected area co-managers for better social dimensions and responsibility. Across existing cooperative planning models improved partnerships and communications are needed to enable Indigenous and non- Indigenous collaborators to share ways of enabling country-based planning and management to assist in species and landscape conservation. Hill’s (2006)  framework and table highlight the polar approaches to managements based on the Kuku Yalangi case study in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (Appendix A). The conservation management literature in recent years has highlighted that co-management of parks and protected areas is important. Based on the experience of park managers struggling to integrate the protected area with the socioeconomic fabric of the surrounding region has supported the rationale for this approach to protected area management. This rich experience informs calls for co-management however, the theoretical rationale for an explanation of co-management, have been slow in realisation. Aspects, Issues and Problems Four issues are identified for the incorporation of Indigenous value systems and how different cultures influence the social dimension, responsibility and modern governance. The process of interrelation has affected not only the articulation of Aboriginal identities, but also implicates the importance of local cosmologies The practice of cultural differences, beliefs and values that reflects to individual behaviours represent their identity and organization The local community are themselves deeply affected by the growing saturation forms of knowledge, practice and values including socio cultural through colonial interference Modern governance and legislation affect traditional beliefs and cultures learned from ancestors Issue 1: Interrelations and implications of Aboriginal identities It is recommended that support be provided to Traditional Owners to continue their practices to incorporate their beliefs, values and culture, to sustain the community relationships and the social dimensions of each group of agency and government sector. It is important to assist them to build their capacity to ensure that these practices will be passed onto the next generational to encourage more sustainability in social and environmental aspects in the future. The action needs to be delivered with respect to maintain the social dimension of the communities for improved governance. Issue 2: Cultural differences, beliefs and values Again it is recommended that respect be shown to individual or organisations in order to achieve a sustainable environment or relationship. Good governance and leadership can deliver the social equity to achieve each individual or organisation goals or projects. Their information is thousands of years old and should be given the respect it deserves. Issue 3: Introduced influences The effects of colonialism has affected many Indigenous societies creating a wedge and feelings of mistrust and caution with imparting Traditional Knowledge without compensation or recognition. It is recommended that Indigenous people be provided with support for capacity building, governance, Intellectual Property rights and access to their country without exploitation. Issue 4: The influences of modern governance and legislation Indigenous people perceive current legislations, especially the Native Title Act 1993, as very racist that supports colonial practices to ‘conquer and divide’ and therefore are very reluctant to partake in government conservation strategies. Financial support to deliver the projects is minimum and not guaranteed to be on-going. Green washing by the governments is also another contributing factor affecting Indigenous participation. The land is very sacred and central to Indigenous people and the environmental schemes offered by governments are p erceived as a ‘carrot on a stick’ to coax people in to provide information for management plans to destroy the land for mining activities. Land Councils are funded by governments to administer these ineffective schemes without any accountability. Bohnet’s (2009) application of socio-logical planning framework on a holistic landscape in the Tully-Murray basin to test its transferability and effectiveness for knowledge integration in a water quality improvement planning context in the Great Barrier Reef proved to be challenging that achieved rewarding results. The acknowledgment that social and ecological knowledge is a key issue and research priorities in landscape ecology is supported by Bohnet (2009:1) who states that â€Å"further research into the roles of responsibilities of multi-stakeholder for knowledge integration in developing and managing sustainable land- and sea-scapes is recommended†. Figure 1: Bohnet’s (2009) Flow of the adaption and operationalisation of the socio-logical framework for sustainable landscape planning to water quality improvement planning in the Tully–Murray Basin Report Reviews We present a typology of Indigenous governance in environmental management derived through report review of 3 Australian journals, and consider its implications for the integration of IEK with western science. Our analytical framework is underpinned by sociological and rational choice institutionalism and which are differentiated by these three points: (1) Active participation, incorporating participatory planning, engagement with organizations, and coordination approaches; (2) Indigenous engagement, Indigenous development and capacity building for intercultural purpose, incorporating purposes of environmental management; (3) Sharing power, incorporating decision making, defining rules, resource values and property rights. We attempt to find solutions that are associated to Indigenous-driven co-governance; Indigenous governed collaborations; and agency governance; agency-driven co-governance. We draw on the notion of boundary work to examine how interaction at the boundaries of scien tific and IK systems can be managed effectively as a contribution to co-management. The case study of Binthi Wambal Aboriginal Corporation (BWAC) illustrates the work necessary for local co-managers to meld scientific and IK systems ensuring that management decisions are informed by the translation of knowledge. Attributes for effective implementing planning in this case include: (1) Translating the issues and problems and taking into consideration BWAC’s recommendations and objectives for participation in agenda setting and joint knowledge production. (2) Taking into consideration the recommendations presented in the reviews to broker interactions between knowledge systems that are supported by co-governance arrangements to ensure that boundary work remains accountable, and the production of collaboratively built boundary objects. (3) Providing BWAC with support to develop their capacity for improved business planning, governance, on-country planning and strategic planning. (4) Working directly with the organisation rather than Cape York Land Council and Bal kanu. This will ensure integrity and that correct information is provided at the same time providing BWAC with the capacity towards self-determination. Szabo and Smyth’s (2003) summary of the background to the establishment of Indigenous Protected Areas (IPA) in Australia of the legal and policy innovations on which they are based shows that  environmental and cultural benefits are inseparable. IPAs are managed and owned by Indigenous peoples and developed collaboratively with federal, state and territory conservation agencies in accordance with IUCN categories that forms part of Australia’s national system of protected areas. Szabo and Smyth (2003:7) through workshopping found that benefits included: Getting Traditional Owners back on country, often after long absences; Involving school children in IPA field trips, transferring knowledge between generations and strengthening languages; Re-establishing traditional burning practices, maintaining waterholes and reducing feral animal impacts; Providing training and employment in managing country; Promoting renewed interest about caring for the country. They also write (2003:8); â€Å"In addition to these formal joint management arrangements, most Australian states and territories have provision for some Indigenous involvement throughout their protected area systems. This might involve, for example, a commitment to consultation with Indigenous people, an Indigenous representative on an advisory committee, some employment or responsibility for Indigenous heritage protection. Indigenous people have consistently expressed the view that such arrangements do not adequately recognise their status as traditional landowners and they are seeking more meaningful involvement, especially at the decision and policy-making level. One feature that is common to all co-management arrangements is the lack of opportunity for Indigenous groups to decide whether or not they wanted their traditional lands to become protected areas.† Table 1(Szabo and Smyth 2003:9) shows a comparison of the main features of IPAs with co-managed protected areas in Australia. Table 1: Comparative features of Indigenous Protected Areas and co-managed national parks in Australia 1. Altman, J.C. ‘Sustainable Development Options on Aboriginal Land: The Hybrid Economy in the Twenty-First Century’. CAEPR Discussion Paper No. 226, 2001. Challenges to broaden the notion of the economy and development to  include the customary economy: Altman’s objectives in this journal is clearly defined and summarised to highlight that there are challenges to understanding the dichotomy of Indigenous and Non-Indigenous sustainability. Working for the Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation in central Arnhem Land he proposes a model to converge his social science work with a number of biological scientists based at the Australian Research Council ARC Key Centre for Tropical Wildlife Management at the Northern Territory University. He argues that to achieve this required a paradigm shift in ideological positions and notions of development that are entrenched in the market mentality that do not accommodate cross-cultural and sustainability issues. He successfully outlines the economic development problems that are faced by this periphery group describing the hybrid economy consisting of market, state and customary components that politicians, policy makers and Indigenous people and their representative organisations do not fully understand. These are the key immediate challenges that he raises for this shortfalling as cited from page 16: The first is to understand the nature of the economy, plan for sustainability, and nurture the hybrid economy in ways that mesh with Indigenous values. The second is to shift the political debate to ensure a recognition of customary contributions provided by Indigenous people to regional and national economies and industries, and ensure appropriate financial underwriting by those who benefit, Finally, market opportunities in many remote localities are rare, so when new opportunities arise they must be quickly harnessed by Indigenous interests. It is imperative that newly emerging property righ ts (e.g. in tradeable carbon credits) are commercially realised not alienated as in the past. Overall, the article is concise, however it should be understood in a pioneering context. In summing up the concepts, argument and method used to show his evidence served its purpose to shed light on this topic to contribute positive approaches to combine Indigenous and Non-Indigenous sustainability. His explanation to show that Indigenous contributions are quantified and should be recognised in mainstream economies was achieved. His arguments provides an alternative pathway to improve the inadequate analytical approaches that fail to ask how develop based on market engagement be delivered to communities that are extremely remote from  locational and cultural markets. In its context his suggested framework to understand the hybrid economy through hybrid analytical and intellectual combination of science, social science and Indigenous Knowledge systems is plausible and partially relevant to BWAC. 2. Smith, B. A Complex Balance: Mediating Sustainable Development Cape York Peninsula. The Drawing Board: An Australian Review of Public Affairs, 2003. Recognising differences and compromising between Indigenous and non-Indigenous ways: Smith accomplishes his objective to describe a sustainable development project in a remote rural Aboriginal community. He empirically examines through his field work in central Cape York Peninsula (1996 – 2003) the differences and ongoing compromises between forms of social and political and economic organisations of Indigenous and non-Indigenous ways. His methodology effectively demonstrates that development intervention is likely to fail when it is not appreciative of differences between Indigenous and Non-Indigenous ideals and ways of doing things to improve human living conditions. He illustrates that impacts such as colonialism and post-colonial impacts and policies such as ‘self-determination’ and welfare dependencies have co ntributed to the problems affecting good governance. Shifts in recent policy and research of engagement with economic, social, political and environment considerations were flawed and flagged ‘traditional Indigenous values’ affecting development. On page 101 he writes; â€Å"this lack of engagement with Indigenous ideals and ways of doing things pervades Australia’s mainstream Indigenous discourse†. Whereas the â€Å"mainstream discourse, more obviously ‘material’ poverty and social problems take priority over ‘cultural’ or symbolic dimensions of Indigenous life and of the relationship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations†. He develops his arguments based on authoritative sources to support that intervention of external agencies would be more effective when they work with rather than against local values and practices. To support his argument he draws on his fieldwork to examine how a contemporary remote Aboriginal community is pursuing ‘sustainable development’ and how ‘cultural’ dimensions shape and constrain the community’s efforts. Incorporated into his ethnographical approach a historical analysis showed innovative approaches that explained the corporation’s successes to involve the articulation of different cultural domains – ‘mainstream’ or ‘Western’ and local Indigenous  life-worlds – in its day-to-day operations, involving divergent aspirations and values. Aspirations included an emphasis on decentralisation and outstation development, land rights, the resourcing of activities on traditional lands, and town-based economic development, employment and training opportunities. Based on his observations, for Aboriginal autonomy to be successful the social and cultural dimensions of development projects need to be taken into consideration. Again, this paper has to be appreciated in the context that it was written as it is slightly outdated and based on evidence when the movement towards Indigenous sustainable development was in the trailing stages. 3. Smith, B. ‘We Got Our Own Management’: Local Knowledge, Government and Development in Cape York Peninsula, 2005. Indigenous perspectives of governance in Cape York Peninsula: Again Smith relies on his fieldwork in Coen to examine the growing interrelationship of local knowledge and projects of government amongst Indigenous Australians. He relies on ethnographical material to highlight the tensions and complexities of land and natural resource management involving traditional owners. In analysing the ways in which the concept of management he demonstrates the growing interrelation of originally distinct indigenous and exogenous systems that has affected the articulation of Aboriginal identities and implicated in the current importance of local cosmologies. He cleverly entices the reader by telling a story of a meeting about the Hendra virus threats and transferred from flying foxes to horses and humans between local traditional owners and Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service (QPWS) Scientist. In particular he relates how Traditional Owner’s version of cosmology that the flying foxes come from the mouth of the rainbow serpent did not agree with the scientist who told them that ‘they flew up from Ravenshoe.’ His statement on page 6 conjures up this extremity â€Å"for these men and women, the articulation of Aboriginal world views, including those closely tied to local cosmologies, has provided a key means of asserting not only what they regard as fundamental differences between Aboriginal life-worlds and those social and cultural fields to which these external agencies are fundamentally orientated; but also the necessary primacy of Aboriginal cosmologies and linked forms of social organisation in determining the character of local ‘governance’ projects and ‘natural resource management.† Firstly, he  sufficiently provides an overview of the governance of Cape York Peninsula by providing a historical analysis of the township and ties in an analysis of Indigenous ‘conceptualisation of the innate’. Next, his overview of the development of Indigenous involvement in natural resource management demonstrates the problems associated with negotiating within this framework. He proficiently articulates the views and concerns of his participants and provides evidence that they were not happy with outside organisations based in Cairns working on their business as they felt that their ownership was taken away from them. He writes â€Å"the sense of localisation insists on the necessity if Aboriginal people representing themselves and the country with which they have personal ties. It further discriminates between forms of knowledge, decision making and practice held to be indigenous to a particular area and the people tied to that area under ‘Murri [Aborigina l] law’, and those forms regarded as exogenous.† To achieve his overall objective Smith ties in the work and structure of Chuulangu Aboriginal Corporation situated on the Wenlock River and run by David Claudie who has been very successful in incorporating both Indigenous and Western approaches to cultural and natural resource management as evidenced on their web page: www.kaanjugaachi.com.au This document is very relevant to BWAC as aspirations and difficulties experienced with outside organisations are very similar to Chuulangu Aboriginal Corporation. Smith’s account of governance in Cape York Peninsula is a very plausible and relevant document that policy makers, politicians and researchers should read to grasp an understanding to guide socio-ecological methodologies for better social dimensions and social responsibility in delivering projects. The Cape York experiences shares similarities with other Indigenous organisations wanting to achieve the same goals, however, their issues and problems are uniquely different outsid e this region. Case Study and Recommendations: Binthi Wambal Aboriginal Corporation (BWAC) Background Binthi Wambal Aboriginal Corporation (Indigenous Corporation Number ICN 4055) is an Indigenous Organisation that is registered with the Office of the Register of Indigenous Organisations as prescribed by the Corporations (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006 (CATSI Act). As outlined in the Rule Book the objectives the corporation aims to achieve are: Return  to their traditional land; Re-establish their spiritual connection with the land; Work their land in both the ancient way of the Aboriginal, and in the modern way of cattle and crops; Facilitate the training and education of the corporation members and their families; and Establish self-sufficiency towards the future for the next generation. Binthi country is situated approximately 40 kilometres north of Cooktown on the McIvor River and comprises mixed tenure arrangements within the Guugu Yimithirr Nation (Appendix B). This corporation also manages the protection of the cultural sites within their territory and is aspiring towards self-sufficiency to develop their outstation. They are also very interested in participating in cultural tourism business to share and showcase their culture and country. Aspects or Issues and Problems Operating as a small organisation in a remote region, BWAC is under-resourced and does not receive an income to manage the issues and problems that are affecting their objectives to achieve their aims. Binthi people would like to develop strategies and management plans to protect their cultural and natural values that are increasingly affected by mining and pastoralism. With the associated problems of the current economic climate BWAC are keen to address these problems to assist them with funding opportunities and compliancy with the CATSI Act. In 1994 the Indigenous Land Corporation purchased Mt Baird Station for Binthi Traditional Owners and this did not include further support to develop or maintain the property. The rates to the Cook Shire Council are an issue as BWAC cannot afford to pay and Hope Vale Aboriginal Council have paid the outstanding amounts and are currently leasing the property for a 10 year period. BWAC also hold lease titles within the Deeds of Grants in Trust (D OGIT) land which is currently managed by a defunct organisation called the Congress of Clans set up and operated by the Cape York Land Council (CYLC) and Balkanu. The government transferred the title to this organisation in 2012 including over $7 million dollars in ex-gratia money of frozen royalty funds from Cape Flattery Silica Mines and which has been misappropriated by CYLC and Balkanu. This is  currently a very controversial issue and a major concern to all the Traditional Owner Groups within this boundary, as it impinges upon their rights and access to their country. An illegal and fraudulent process occurred whereby the traditional owners were not negotiated with and the rightful owners of Cape Flattery did not receive their monies. As the signatures were obtained fraudulently the protection of cultural and natural heritage for all involved is at stake. Finally, the community has two tiers of bureaucracy to deal with, including Local Government Authorities and the welfare reform imposed without free and prior informed consent. Partnerships and Cape York Institute that promote this are associated with Cape York Land Council and Balkanu and whose members and affiliates have been the perpetrators of violence that members of BWAC and the community have tolerated for many years. Ironically, they receive millions of dollars of funding from the government to roll out this program with Local Commissioners who all have criminal histories and no qualifications. Recommendations Issue 1: Governance and strategic business planning It is a priority that viable strategic business plans are developed to raise BWAC to a level to be competitive and eligible for funding opportunities to improve administration and governance matters. Regular meetings and reporting are required for compliancy with the CATSI Act and audit purposes. Funding opportunities to employ a Project Officer to oversee this is a positive outcome that will alleviate the pressures of these issues at hand. These are to be developed initially to then set in place recommendations to be implemented. In doing so, it is important that the business drivers be refined to enhance product quality, cost image and passion to make a difference. The vision and objectives may have to be revisited, so that it is short and realistic in an ever changing environment. The current position will also have to be reconsidered and bought into context, so that gap analysis can be undertake to develop strategies are developed in an action plan for every strategy for implemen tation and review so that they can be improved. Binthi Wambal, Chuulangu and Dingaal Warra are all working towards the same vision and to do so will also involve exposing Balkanu and Cape York Land Council for corruption and fraud. It is  recommended that these organisations and others support each other and it is expected that the strategic business planning process to take one year to thoroughly complete. Issue 2: Rates for freehold property and tenure associated to Deeds of Grant in Trust lands To overcome the issue to generate income BWAC must develop employment and training strategies in conjunction with viable crop and harvest economy, or other suggested ideas. In addition, partnerships with other stakeholders, such as Indigenous organisations, Local Government and government agencies, are recommended as the most practical way for support and to further advance financial problems. It is also recommended that legal advice be obtained on the tenure related problems for counteraction to High Court proceedings and the Human Rights Commission and the International United Nations Committees for breaches of human rights issues. The same applies to challenging the Welfare Reform Policies currently in place. Financial assistance for initiation start-up of $250, 000 is required to undertake this task and strategies developed to ensure that these outcomes are achievable. Approximately $10, 000 per annum is required for rate payments. The rates will be an ongoing issue and it is expected that the tenure issue can take approximately 1- 2 years to resolve. In the interim, whilst Hope Vale Council is managing the property BWAC can provide support. Within eight years BWAC can be resourced to be able to manage the property. Issue 3: Mining Threats It is necessary that BWAC develop a Cultural Heritage Management Plan as prescribed by the Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Act 2003 (Appendix C) and exercise their right to negotiate with mining companies, as specified in section 29 of the Native Title Act 1993. This is beneficial so that agreements can be reached for the protection of cultural sites. Extensive mapping of the sites have occurred and entered onto the state database, however, as the Native Title are a mess BWAC have lost their right to Balkanu and Cape York Land Council to negotiate any matters to their cultural heritage or funding opportunities for land and sea planning matters. These three pressing issues are affecting BWAC ability to function and the implication of the problems impinges on the development of their aspirations and poses perceived threats that require a gap analysis to  devise strategies for an Action Plan for implementation and review. In addition to these dilemmas there are advantages to including IEK into socio-logical framework for sustainable landscape planning equation contributing towards a holistic and inclusive approach for improved social dimensions and social responsibility without Cape York Land Council involvement. Conclusion In consideration of these issues and recommendation it is envisioned that BWAC can overcome these issues to implement their plans to achieve outcomes with the following objectives: Take a leading role in the community on issues such as climate change and sustainability. Ensure that strategic objectives of BWAC are relevant to the local, state and national business community and government. To raise the character and status and advance the interests of BWAC and those engaged therein. Establish and maintain a focused portfolio of activities of activities including research, provision of training, government and executive development programs, consultancy and other entrepreneurial initiatives. Ensure that BWAC delivers quality in all of its endeavours. Establish an agreed and acceptable system of performance review. Maintain a comprehensive knowledge of the external resources to optimise ongoing and future funding. Ensure that BWAC uses an appropriate and regular system of external and internal communication To maintain contact and communicate with the governments of the Commonwealth of Australia and of its States and Territories and with local and municipal governing bodies and other public and private organisations on matters of concern to BWAC and to the wider community. To increase the confidence of the community in the development of BWAC projects and to ensure transparent accountability. To promote honourable practice and integrity to ensure the success of future projects. From our review of governance issues and indicators of knowledge integration across the types, we support that Indigenous governance and Indigenous-driven co-governance are important factors towards the integration of IEK and western science for sustainability of social-ecological systems. Distinct Indigenous cultural purposes  underpinning IEK, and benefits knowledge integration can be sustained by supporting Indigenous governance without, or with only a limited requirement for power sharing. We conclude by promoting the reports reviewed be regarded as authoritative on the topic to test its general effectiveness in guiding practitioners and researchers to develop robust governance for Indigenous knowledge integration of periphery groups in environmental management. References Altman, J.C. (2001), ‘Sustainable Development Options on Aboriginal Land: The Hybrid Economy in the Twenty-First Century’. CAEPR Discussion Paper No. 226, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research (CAEPR), Australian National University, Canberra [Online], Available: https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/40104/2/2001_DP226.pdf Bohnet, I.C. (2009), Integrating Social and Ecological Knowledge for Planning Sustainable Land and Sea Scapes: Experiences from the Great Barrier Reef Region, Australia. Research Article, Landscape Ecology, DOI 10.1007/s10980-010-9504-z, Available: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10980-010-9504-z#page-1 Hill, R. (2006), The Effectiveness of Agreements and Protocols to Bridge Between Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Toolboxes for Protected Area Management: As Case Study from the Wet Tropics of Queensland, Society & Natural Resources, 19:7, 577-599, Available: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08941920600742310#.Uo wc1-Kn6Ts Smith, B. (2003), A Complex Balance: Mediating Sustainable Development Cape York Peninsula. The Drawing Board: An Australian Review of Public Affairs, Volume 4, Number 2: November 2003, 99-115, School of Economics and Political Science, University of Sydney. Available: http://www.australianreview.net/journal/v4/n2/smith.pdf http://caepr.anu.edu.au/StaffProfiles/Benjamin-Smith Smith, B. (2005), ‘We Got Our Own Management’: Local Knowledge, Government and Development in Cape York Peninsula. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2005/2, Australian National University, Canberra. Szabo, S. & Smyth, D. (2003), Indigenous Protected Areas in Australia. In, Jaireth, H. and D. Smyth (Eds), Innovative Governance: Indigenous Peoples, Local Communities and Protected Areas, pp 145-164. IUCN-sponsored by publication, published by Ane Books, New Delhi. Available: http://www.sbconsultants.com.au/index.php/reports-and-publications-mainmenu-41 Appendix A: Hill’s Conceptual framework for bridging two management toolboxes Kuku Yalangi versus Wet Tropics World Heritage Area Appendix B: Guugu Yimithirr Map Appendix C: Cultural Heritage Study & Cultural Heritage Management Flow Chart

Government by the People Essay

The population growth has caused concern for many Americans because of the terms of numbers and poverty that comes with this growth. There is a pattern showing of wealth transferring from poorer nations to the richer nations of the globe and the information technology revolution is speeding this cycle up. With population growth reaching new heights new concerns for increasing urban growth has emerged. Planning for transportation, environment protection, or management of water and other resources are needed. Unregulated markets forces will hurt individuals and â€Å"politics as usual† will not mandate viable growth patterns or protect the air, water and natural beauty of our country. Planning and growth depends on public support and market forces. In order for plans to be effective they must show he same interests and values of major groups within the community. Even with the fear of the government, something that is generally accepted hampers a lot of effective planning. But it is clear that for any planning to work there must a consensus between â€Å"planners, community leaders, and the popularly elected officials who must bear the responsibility for implementing the plans† (Magleby, O’Brien, Light, Peltason & Cronin, 2006, p. 649). This planning for our country, communities and societies along with its citizens has given the United States the status of world power. But controversy has erupted from the resent war with Iraq that questions our authority. I’ve heard many individual claims that America is expanding its empire, rather than fighting for freedom. Our rise to a world power has come because of our industry, colleges and universities, multiple government institutions, military strengths. This along with our innovations in science, technology and medicine catapulted us into our status. Development of such things as television and jet airliners gave America the edge it needed to jump to the top of the ladder. They have also helped to spread our ideologies of democracy and westernization. It has created globalization and keeps it going. Our commerce and business growth has only helped with this globalization. Companies, such as IBM and General Motors have given the national government firm grounds in business. Our national government promotes â€Å"a prosperous economy through its monetary and fiscal policies† (Magleby, O’Brien, Light, Peltason, & Cronin, 2006, p. 437). The Department of Commerce has been at the center of the government’s efforts to promote economic growth and encourage businesses to do research and new development. These companies are at the heart of this economic growth plan. But more recently new development has been needed to keep these companies afloat as technology and innovation continues to climb new heights. Turning outdated companies into the companies of the future. The introduction of the electronic superhighway mandates companies to use e-commerce and if they can’t they might get left behind. The internet has given us a faster way for just about everything. It has even influenced society, culture and lifestyles. The Progressive Era began in United States during the mid 1890’s and continued through World War I. It was a time when individuals were beginning to have concerns with the state of society. It also brought about a belief in human compassion and how new innovations along with scientific investigation could somehow show what the problem was with ways of solving the problems. This reformation shows even in today’s time. Our social construct has great bearing on our national government. Take for example the debate on same-sex marriages. Our government has made laws that pertain to this issue, but some in society believe government has gone too far. But the core issue at stake, that I believe, has something to do with insurance. I don’t believe that our national government is trying to establish social norms, but rather maintain certain expectations of commerce and business. Reference: Magleby, D. B. , O’Brien, D. , Light, P. , Peltason, J. W. , & Cronin, T. E. (2006). Government by the People: National, State, and Local 21st. Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

A Simulation Of Sustainability In Urban Environments Environmental Sciences Essay

In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development, ( WCED 1987 ) stated that â€Å" Humanity has the ability to do development sustainable to guarantee that it meets the demands of the present without compromising the ability of future coevalss to run into their ain demands † . There Out of the many definitions of sustainability this profound statement has become the most widely accepted. It is what these demands are, how we impact upon them and how out impact can be measured or assessed that raises the most argument. ( Parkin et al. 2003 ) Sustainability is frequently symbolised utilizing three over lapping circles ( fig 1 ) , stand foring the three facets of sustainability ( society, economic system and environment ) . However this simple diagram over simplifies the complex interactions which occur between the facets and the big figure of indexs which are used to mensurate our impact. Unless these complex interactions are clearly understood by all the stakeholders it would be impossible to to the full measure the sustainability of any development ( Foxon et al. 2002 ) . A figure of determination support tools have been created to help determination shapers in accomplishing sustainable urban developments. There has been immense attempt and resources put into making DSTs, yet despite this most are seldom used due to either the complexness of their operation or the complexness of their end product ( Isaacs et al. 2007 ) . It is hence believed that there is a demand for new determination support tools that can cover with the complexness of urban design and which go beyond the proficient orientation of old tools ( Sahota & A ; Jeffery 2005 ) to enable a robust appraisal of sustainability within the decision-making procedures. Visual image has been used to help determination devising in a figure of Fieldss including increasing the safety and effectivity of oil boring in the oil and gas industry ( Evans et al. 2002 ) , visualizing medical informations ( Fuchs et al. 1989 ) and battlefield simulations ( Hix et al. 1999 ) . Geographic Information systems are presently the most extensively used visual image platform for determination devising. â€Å" GIS is now a standard point in contrivers ‘ tool kits † ( Drummond & A ; Gallic 2008 ) and there are many illustrations its usage in urban planning and determination devising over the last 20 old ages ( Harris & A ; Elmes 1993 ; Stevens et Al. 2007 ; States 2000 ; Shiffer 1998 ; Lodha & A ; Verma 2000 ) . Traditionally GIS provides the user with a synergistic information researching interface which allows them to cover a figure of different maps onto a 2D surface and allows the user to carry on complex geospatial analysis ( Salter et al. 2009 ) . Howe ver it has been shown ( Lowe 2004 ; Lowe 2003 ) that many non-expert stakeholders have great trouble in decoding and understanding scientific shows and maps. Due to its complexness and high acquisition curve GIS requires the user â€Å" to believe like a geographic information scientist † ( Clarke 2001 ) and is still considered to be a hard to utilize, adept tool ( Traynor & A ; Williams 1995 ) . Its usage in determination devising has made it hard for non expert stakeholders, particularly the general populace, to take part to the full in be aftering determinations ( Salter et al. 2009 ; Al-Kodmany 2002 ) . Most GIS systems are purely 2D, covering with geospatial informations being draped over a map or other geographical representation. While experts can imagine the ocular impact of a proposed development from this program view it is really hard for person non trained in the usage of GIS to make this. This can take to non-expert stakeholder non to the full understanding the effects of the determinations being made and go forth them with an unintended positive or negative position of the planned development ( Danahy et al. 1999 ) . 3D representations nevertheless allow users to rapidly recognize the spacial context of the determination and besides to orientate their position of the proposed development ( Danahy et al. 1999 ) . Peoples develop the ability to voyage and visually process 3D representations of urban environments on a bomber witting degree throughout their lives as they walk through existent universe metropoliss ( Charters et al. 2002 ) . This sub witting ability means that t he user will non hold to work to visualize the development but can concentrate on the determination, and the effects of the determination, being made. SCITY VT S-City VT ( sustainable metropolis visual image tool ) is a paradigm determination support application that is designed to let a wider scope of stakeholders input into the sustainability planning procedure by leting the stakeholders to compare different scenarios utilizing a usage designed simulation and visual image engine. Figure 1: Visual image techniques used in S-City VT The visual image engine utilises a split screen rendering attack which allows the user, utilizing any of the techniques, to compare two scenarios side by side throughout the life rhythm of the development. A figure of visual image techniques have been used to expose the consequences of the implicit in simulation engine which allows the user to non merely compare the external visual aspect of the different scenarios but besides the comparative sustainability of each scenario. As already discussed traditional GIS does non supply a realistic physical representation of the metropolis or development being studied. CAD system do enable the creative activity of 3D theoretical accounts which provide the user with a realistic representation of the edifices and the developments ( Al-Kodmany 2002 ) , nevertheless CAD systems provide no ability to cover extra informations and supply small context out with the edifice or country being studied. The visual image engine combines GIS and 3D urban theoretical accounts and embeds the 3D theoretical accounts in the environing landscape to contextualise the urban country that is undergoing sustainability appraisal. The ability to visualize portion of the metropolis that is undergoing the development or regeneration within the wider metropolis context is likely to better battle with the communicating tool and convey a greater degree of engagement from all participants in the planning procedure ( Levy 1995 ) Fig 4: 3D representation of proposed development within the city-wide context. The usage engine allows the user to hold synergistic control enabling the user to see the proposed development from any imaginable point of view. This allows the user to go to the full immersed in the proposed development, to a much greater grade than 2D programs, GIS, or rendered 3D stills. As has already been shown ( Isaacs et al. 2010a ) S City VT provides the user with a feasible representation of the existent development. Design to Virtual RealityBlendingFig 5: Overview of the index blending technique The blending technique, as shown in figure 5, merely takes the all the sustainability steps for each index, calculated by the bomber system and ANP theoretical accounts, unite them into a individual value. This valued is so mapped to a individual coloring material graduated table. The coloring material graduated table used can be selected from a figure of color graduated tables known for their discriminating abilities ( Levkowitz & A ; Herman 1992 ) these include the het object, magenta, local optimised, and spectral. Using the hot-cold graduated table demonstrated in figure 5 a edifice or floor with high comparative sustainability would look blue while a edifice with low sustainability would look ruddy. This method gives a individual index of sustainability and provides the easiest manner of comparing the comparative sustainability of different options or scenarios.WeavingFig 6: Overview of the index weaving technique Whilst the blending technique, combines the index values, the weaving technique ( figure 6 ) efforts to continue some of the implicit in information so that the user can still place which indexs or bunch are doing the greatest consequence ( negative or positive ) on the sustainability of the edifice. The coloring material weaving technique ( Hagh-Shenas et al. 2007 ) uses a different coloring material graduated table for each index ( figure 6 ) to try to continue this information. The colors from each graduated table are so indiscriminately weaved into a hodgepodge like texture which is applied to each floor of the edifice. The size of the squares or spots in the weave can besides be changed depending on the user ‘s penchants. A little spot size will give an overall representation of the sustainability, with darker sunglassess stand foring low sustainability and lighter sunglassess stand foring higher sustainability. A larger spot size will let user to place rapidly which colou rs stand out the most, and hence which indexs are holding the greatest impact.Traditional Graphical TechniquesRadar graphs, figure 7, let the stakeholder to compare the sustainability of different edifices based on the index values. The form, size, coloring material and point values will be different for each edifice leting a elaborate comparing. Fig7: Comparision of scenarios utilizing traditional radio detection and ranging graphs and coloring material weaving. Parallel coordinates allow the user to compare all index values for all the edifices in a scenario ( fihure 8 ) . Buildings can be selected and their hint in the graph is highlighted. The colors in the graph correspond to those in the blending technique. Fig 8: Parallel co-ordinate graph for sample development. Simple temporal graphs secret plan the all the index values over the life clip of the development. These allow the user to place the interconnectivity of the indexs and to place where and why sudden alterations occur ( figure 9 ) . Fig 9: Index graph demoing alterations in 6 indexs over clip.Real Time SimulationThe index patterning involves developing bomber theoretical accounts that define how each of the indexs vary over infinite and clip. The S-City VT application is built utilizing a modular model supplying flexibleness and leting index theoretical accounts to be changed. For the paradigm application six sustainability index theoretical accounts ( credence, lodging proviso, energy efficiency, noise pollution, employment and economic benefit ) have been developed four of which are described below:Energy EfficiencyThe energy efficiency theoretical account is based on the Nation Calculation Method ( NCM ) which is the industry criterion leting energy efficiency of edifices to be determined ( BRE 2009 ) . The NCM method takes into history a broad scope of factors, including figure of room accesss, Windowss glazing type, exterior building, figure of floors etc, to bring forth a metric depicting the energy effici ency the edifice. A NCM study was developed utilizing the NCM tool, stand foring the typical edifices in the development for a figure of different options including external visual aspect and different mixes of edifice usage. Fig2: Graph demoing temporal alterations in sustainability index due monthly energy fluctuations. This information is input to the energy efficiency theoretical account and attenuated with the temporal energy ingestion informations ( BIS 2009 ) which reflects how the energy usage of the edifices change depending on the clip of twelvemonth. ( fig 2 ) shows how the sustainability index alterations as a map of clip for a 2 different constructing types with different utilizations ( glass, commercial and brick, residential ) .Noise PollutionThe noise theoretical account calculates the degrees of traffic noise geting at each edifice and can besides cipher the proportion of people that will happen certain degrees of noise a nuisance. Datas about the jutting traffic flows for the waterfront development were sourced from Dundee metropolis councils Dundee Waterfront Traffic & A ; Signing Report ( White Young Green 2007 ) . For each route in the proposed development a noise degree is calculated utilizing its projected hourly traffic flow. Using a map provided in CRT ( 1988 ) , ( equation 1 ) this traffic flow can be transformed into a noise degree which corresponds to how loud, in dBs ( dubnium ( A ) ) , the traffic noise is if the hearer were standing about 10 meters off from the route side. equation 1 A noise degree associated at each edifice based on the traffic volume is calculated based on the shortest distance ( vitamin D ) between the noise beginning ( route ) and the edifice utilizing Euclidean geometry. The sound degree emanating from each route is obtained by rectifying the basic noise degree utilizing equation 2. The equation besides includes the tallness ( H ) of the hearer which is changeless in these computations. ( CRTN 1988 ) equation 2 To find the entire noise degree received by the edifice the corrected noise from each route must be summed over n roads in the development ( equation 3 ) equation 3 Each edifice will now hold a noise degree value stand foring the entire degree of noise associated with that edifices location in relation to the roads and their projected traffic flows. Our sustainability step is achieved by normalizing the noise degree ( 0-100 graduated table as before ) and using a non additive map ( equation 4 ( Highways Agency 1994 ) ) , this calculates the per centum of people that will be bothered by a specific degree of noise. equation 4Economic BenefitThe economic theoretical account utilises a discounted hard currency flow computation to find the worth of a edifices current hard currency flow for a specific point in clip. The computation uses a price reduction rate which allows the hard currency flows to be discounted back to their present worth. equation 5 Where CF = hard currency flow for that twelvemonth. R = price reduction rate for that twelvemonth. t = the twelvemonth. In the equation the capital cost for the building of the first edifice is represented by CF0. Capital costs of subsequent edifices will be discounted to this point clip. e.g. the capital cost of a edifice built two old ages after the initial edifice would be discounted utilizing. Each edifice in the simulation has a site readying and building stage, during this clip the hard currency flow in for that period is taken every bit 0 as the edifice would non yet be sold or rented. The simulation is able to reflect the differences between hard currency flows for rented and sold edifices. Buildings which are sold will take a big income at the point of sale. As the edifice has been sold farther hard currency flows for this edifice will be 0. The price reduction factor will besides use to the sale income so for two edifices of tantamount value, a edifice sold in twelvemonth one will hold a higher present value than constructing sold in twelvemonth 10. As the edifice has been sold the upkeep and care of the edifice will be borne by the purchaser and so it non modelled here. Buildings which are rented will take a smaller income every twelvemonth. Rented edifices may hold a rent free period, to promote renters, and will hold a laic period between rentals, during these tim es the hard currency flow for that period will be 0. A price reduction factor is applied to the annual income to find its present value, once more based on the building twelvemonth of the first building.. Fig 3: PV for a individual edifice, built in twelvemonth 0, demoing differences between leased and sold income with different price reduction rates. The initial cost of the edifices are calculated utilizing the edifice type ( e.g. residential, commercial, retail, societal ) and the cost per square meter for that type of edifice. The income from sale or rent is similarly calculated utilizing the jutting income for that type of edifice. These values were sourced from the SET economic study on the waterfront development ( Buchanan 2006 ) . The maximal and minimal valleies are so mapped onto 0 100 and linearly interpolated.CredenceAcceptance corresponds to the credence of possible edifice utilizations within the development. The masterplan for Dundee has been developed and it was possible through treatment with Dundee council to find the possible edifice utilizations which are under reappraisal and included commercial office infinite, retail units, cafe/bar/restaurant and residential infinite. The edifice usage study used a superior system where the participant was asked to rank possible edifice utilizations in order of penchant. If the participant had no penchant between the edifice uses at each rank the proportions chosen at each rank would be equal. To find if this is the instance Friedman trial was performed utilizing SPSS on the average rank of each edifice usage, with the void hypothesis being that the average ranks will be equal. Ranks Mean Rank Commercial 3.37 Retail 2.51 Leisure 1.54 Residential 2.58 Test Statistics a Sample Size 106 Chi-Square 107.264 df 3 Significance. .000 a. Friedman Test The consequences of the Friedman trial show that there is a important difference ( p & lt ; 0.001 ) between how the users ranked the different edifice utilizations. Combined with post-hoc analysis of the consequences it is possible to pattern the acceptableness edifice uses in the undermentioned order ; Leisure ( highest ranked ) , Retail & A ; Residential ( equal ranked ) and Commercial ( Lowest Ranked ) . To make a sustainability index for the acceptableness of each edifice these rankings are mapped onto a 0-100 graduated table, with Leisure at 100 ( highest sustainability ) , Retail & A ; Residential at 50 and Commercial ( lowest sustainability ) at 0.MULTICRITERIA OPINION ANALYSISOne of the jobs with traditional sustainability appraisal is affecting the positions and experiences of a broad scope of stakeholders ( ( Isaacs et al. 2010b ) , . Many of the traditional methods of aggregating index values, such as Multi Attribute Utility Theory ( MAUT ) , lack transparence go forthing the users in a place where they do non to the full understand how the resulting weightings have been derived ( Dodgson et al. 2009 ; Paracchini et Al. 2008 ) . The Analytic Network Process ( ANP ) method uses synergistic web constructions which give a more holistic representation of the overall job ( Saaty 2006 ) . Components of the job are connected, as appropriate, in braces with directed lines imitating the influence of one constituent over another. The constituents in a web may besides be regarded as elements that interact and influence each other in respect to a specific property. ( Saaty 2006 ) . To execute a ANP analysis the determination shaper must place the web through analysis of the job to be solved. The determination shaper must place the bunchs, elements and the relationships and interactions between them ( Bottero et al. 2007 ) . Once the determination shaper has constructed the web to be analysed they must now make a supermatrix depicting the interactions defined in the theoretical account ( Gencer and Gurpinar 2007 ) . The supermatrix is created utilizing the cardinal graduated table and pair-wise method every interaction is described in footings of every component it interacts with ( Saaty 1999 ) . Once this has been completed the normalised eigenvector calculated from the matrix will give the determination shaper the normalised prioritised list of elements. ANP allows cross-cluster interactions every bit good as inter-relationships between elements.. It is structured of course and allows for a more realistic representation of the job, but its chief strength lies in supplying the user with the ability to include their ain personal cognition and sentiments about an interaction through the usage of pair-wise comparings ( Saaty 2006, ; Bottero et Al. 2007 ) . The prioritised list of elements which are derived from the ANP analysis are used in the 3D visual image to supply the user with a individual of sustainability index if required. Al-Kodmany, K. ( 2002 ) Visual image tools and methods in community planning: from freehand studies to practical world. Journal of be aftering Literature, 17 ( 2 ) , p. 189. 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Event Marketing - Assignment Example The organization will use a consistent selection method in every city. The site chosen for the event will be a public library within each city. The largest public library in each city will be the top choice for the event. The quantity of books in the libraries represents the wealth of knowledge that can be attained by developing a study habit and incorporating reading into the weekly routine. During the event the organization will have different guess celebrity speakers talking to the kids about their experience with reading and how much it has helped their lives. In order to attract a lot of kids to the event Read America will solicit the help of a non-profit organization called NBA Cares. NBA Cares is the National Basketball Association global community outreach initiatives that address important social issues such as education, family values, and poverty (Nba, 2011). The organization will select successful retired basketball players who are icons in each city. The retired players that will be speakers at the event are Earvin â€Å"Magic† Johnson, Alonzo Mourning, Patrick Ewing, Michael Jordan, and Larry Bird.

Roles of women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Roles of women - Essay Example ed to hold executive posts in big companies but these days we have women CEOs and MDs heading several organizations and doing considerably well, this goes to show a lot about how times have changed. Women were considered the weaker sex in the past and there are still areas where women are suppressed and denied what they truly deserve. Women have made significant progress in the past and they continue to prove several people wrong. They are no longer behind the four walls of the house, they have started accepting administrative roles and their performance has surprised many a people. â€Å"After decades long battle for basic survival rights, women have broken free of their shackles universally and have unleashed the female power, a power that has changed the world. The 21st century has been a witness to the rise of women power.† (Women on Top) The progress that women have made has been significant and their progress is not restricted to one field alone, they have managed to make significant progress in more fields than one and this has also knocked the stuffing out of people who thought that women were incapable of making progress in their lives. Women have greater control over household matters now but it was much different earlier, they are no longer subjected to abuse and they are no longer ignored as they once were in the past. There were as many as 6700 women working as engineers in the year 1950, a great transition took place during 1940 to 1950. As mentioned earlier this decade was a very promising decade for the women and they grabbed this opportunity by the scruff of its neck. However this progress did not continue as expected, the rate of participation declined in the next decade. The problems for women kept mounting, the jobs in their area was hard to find. Their expertise was not valued and they were left unemployed. 91% of men worked as full time engineers whereas women were 20% less likely of getting a job in their area of expertise. This was again

Separation of powers political science class questions Assignment

Separation of powers political science class questions - Assignment Example and better born have authority and are few." For example, regarding offices one would have elections (an oligarchic element) but no property assessment (a democratic element). Montesquieu agrees in part with Aristotle’s ideas of combining a democracy with oligarchy. He terms them â€Å"executive† and â€Å"legislative† branches, but they are in effect the same as Aristotle’s â€Å"democracy† and â€Å"oligarchy†. Montesquieu echoes Aristotle’s arguments that having the mixture of the traditional governing bodies would balance the power and authority. Further more, he references Aristotle in his book by saying; â€Å"The inhabitants of a particular town are much better acquainted with its wants and interests than with those of other places; and are better judges of the capacity of their neighbors than of that of the rest of their countrymen. The members, therefore, of the legislature should not be chosen from the general body of the nation; but it is proper that in every considerable place a representative should be elected by the inhabitants† (Montesquieu). Aristotle, Montesquieu, and Locke all support the notion that civil society originates when, for the better administration of the law, men agree to delegate legal functions to certain officers. They are all against a â€Å"monarchy† government as it does not support a civil society. It by definition corrupts the individual who is given all of the power. Both Aristotle and Montesquieu allow for a balance between the oligarchy/monarchy and the democracy by allowing an â€Å"executive† element who’s function is to balance that of the legislative/democratic element. 2) Aristotle believed that there were three classes. At the bottom were the farmers, laborers, and poor. As this class of people did not have the leisure time to pursue education, they would make a meager ruling class. The ruling class Aristotle argued should be comprised of the leisured classes, and the â€Å"middling element†. He clarifies that the

International Humanitarian Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Humanitarian Law - Case Study Example It is clear that the fighting in Ruritania may not be considered as conflicts of an international character. However, the facts of the case clearly states that the element of the crime as defined above is satisfied. The civilian guards did not take part in any hostilities such that they fall within the ambit of the above-mentioned provision. It is worthy to note the Report of the Preparatory Committee on the establishment of an International Criminal Court on the Draft Statute for the International Criminal Court, addendum 1, UN Doc. /CONF.183/2/Add.1, p. 21. The employment of children to support the front line, or activities at the front line itself, would be included within the said provision. In the instant case, Samba (13 yrs) and Yade (14 yrs) were chosen as personal bodyguards of Guru X because they are the strongest 'junior Panthers. This act clearly violates the above-stated provision. In the case of Prosecutor v. Lubanga, Decision on the confirmation of charges, 29 January 2007 the ICC pronounced that Articles 8(2)(b)(xxvi) and 8(2)(e)(vii) are applicable even if children are employed to safeguard the physical safety of military commanders (Par. 263). It might be argued that the recruitment taken by the Black Panthers is not covered under the purview of conscription and enlistment. In this regard, the disquisit ion in the same case is illuminating thus: "The Rome Statute prefers the terms "conscripting" and "enlisting" to "recruitment". In light of the foregoing, the Chamber holds the view that "conscripting" and "enlisting" are two forms of recruitment, "conscripting" being forcible recruitment, while "enlisting" pertains more to voluntary recruitment. It follows therefore that enlisting is a "voluntary" act, whilst conscripting is forcible recruitment. In other words, the child's consent is not a valid defence." (par 246-247). Hence, whether or not the enticement of the children to join the Black Panthers was done through force or by the voluntary acts of the former, the same is prohibited by the Statute. Although the plan of Guru X to forcibly compel the captured prisoners of the Black Panthers to join them were not followed by his second in command-Tutu, the setting up of recruitment centers in safe places within Ruritania, taking into account the fact that the Black Panthers did not even bother to ascertain the ages of the recruits, clearly violated the Statute, even though the conflict in the country is not international in character. Looking now into the individual

Sample Paper for Propositional Arguments Essay Example for Free

Sample Paper for Propositional Arguments Essay In this paper, I will analyze the following argument in terms of validity and soundness: An argument is a syllogism only if it is valid. An argument has a true conclusion, if it is valid. If an argument has consistent premises, then it has a true conclusion. Thus, if an argument is a syllogism, then it has a true conclusion. As we shall soon learn, this argument is valid but unsound. I begin my analysis by providing a dictionary and putting the argument in standard logical form. Here is my dictionary. Let ‘S’ stand for ‘an argument is a syllogism’ Let ‘V’ stand for ‘an argument is valid’ Let ‘C’ stand for ‘an argument has a true conclusion’ Let ‘P’ stand for the premises are consistent’ Here is the argument in standard logical form. S→V P→C V→C S→C This argument is valid. My proof for validity can be found in my appendix at the end of the paper. [And no, I am not going to provide an appendix for a sample paper]. Now that we know that the argument is valid, let us examine each statement in the argument. The first premise is S→V. This states that if an argument is a syllogism, then it is valid. This is false. An argument could be a syllogism yet be invalid. A syllogism is an argument that has two premises and a conclusion; but such an argument can be valid or invalid. Some poodles are dogs Some elephants are not dogs No elephants are poodles This argument is a syllogism yet it still has an invalid form. [No, you don’t have to prove the form is invalid; but you better be correct] The second premise is P→C. This states that if the premises are consistent, then the argument has a true conclusion. This premise is false. If the premises are consistent, then there is an interpretation where they are all true. But we know nothing about the conclusion. P1 P2 P3 C : : : : T T T F ; ; ; ; In this truth table, we see that our premise are consistent. There is an interpretation where all three are true. But in this interpretation, the conclusion is false. So, the argument is actually invalid. ( This is a relatively abstract truth table. You could also use a concrete example such as this: AvB A . B This argument has consistent premises but it is invalid. You will want to present both the argument and a truth table. Don’t make the reader guess what are the premises and conclusion from the table itself. Present the argument) The third premise is V→C. This states that if an argument is valid, then it has a true conclusion. This is false. A valid argument can have a false conclusion. All dogs are cats Some mice are dogs Some mice are cats As we can see from this example, a valid argument can have a false conclusion but only it if also has false premises. Finally, let us examine the conclusion: S→C. This states that if an argument is a syllogism, then it has a true conclusion. This also is false. A syllogism can have either a true or false conclusion. Here is an example of a syllogism with a false conclusion. Some mice are cats Some mammals are mice No mammals are cats A sound argument has both a valid form and true premises. While our argument had the valid form, it also had false premises. Thus, our argument is valid but unsound.

The problem of Gun control in America

The problem of Gun control in America This is an ever growing problem of violence faces Americans. The streets are becoming a battleground where individuals are been beaten for their belongings, women are terrified and viciously attacked and raped, teenage gangsters are shooting it out for a patch of territories to sell their illegal drugs, and innocent children are been caught every day in the crossfire of drive by shootings which end up in seriously injured or die. Society cannot look the other way and ignore the damage that these criminals do to the society, and people must take appropriate actions to try to stop these horrors. This paper will analyze different aspect of this problem the nation is facing. Gun control may be called the acid test of liberalism. All liberals who call or think themselves as the true one must favor stricter gun controls. After all, does the United States of America have the most heavily armed population on the earth? Is the United States of America the worlds most violent people? Surely, these facts must be at least casually connected. Therefore the apparently desperate need to do something about the vast quantity of firearms and firearms abuse is a major concern. Guns are been used in an enormous number of crimes in this country. In other places in the world with stricter gun laws, gun crimes are rare. Many of the firearms or weapons involved in crime are cheap handguns, and sometime called Saturday night specials for which there is no legitimate use or need. The public is deeply concerned on the issue of gun control; anti-gun control activists believe or think that it is each and every Americans individual right to bear arms. The Second Amendment to the Constitution proves that the people have a choice to own weapons. A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a Free State, and it is the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. Advocates of gun control said that even with multiple gun control laws already in existence, the serious problems are due to firearm misuse each and every day. Furthermore, the controls that have been designed have not been sufficiently effective or progress. Therefore, those who favor gun controllers argue, we need more uniform into the legislation, more extensive gun controls, and effective enforcement. Various pro-gun control organizations argue on methods of gun control needed. For more examples, there are individuals who would ban all weapons as well as those who take a less radical stand and who would simply increase the controls on firearms. The moderate gun control individuals or groups propose measures such as requiring an individual to successfully complete weapons safety course before being allowed to possess a gun or the individuals have to wait for a mandatory period of time before taking possession of a gun. Today, there maybe over more 20,000 different gun control laws in existence, ranging from those enacted by counties and states, and to those enacted by the federal government. When gun control is ineffective and tougher sentencing of criminals or offenders and stricter parole policies should do far more to combat crime. Statistics prove that Canada has less violent than the United States. Fewer weapons are only part of the story. The inner city slums of the United States of America are murderous, and bombed out looking places. When Americans visit Canadas big cities, they often ask where the bad individuals are. The answer usually is, there really arent any slums, because the lack of violence there reflects it. According to the Economist magazine, blacks are 12% of the United States population, and account for 48% of murders, mostly because the inner city blacks are killing one another. Most of these guns were not purchased from retail gun stores. Gun laws will not keep guns out of these ghettos (The Economist, 1993). One of the founding fathers included Second Amendment from the Constitution, because it was made very aware of the fact that there might once again come a time when American citizens would have to fight for their freedom. Of course guns fall in the wrong hands or hands of criminals are harmful. But taking away guns from honest individuals or law abiding citizens do nothing to solve the problem of those who would misuse guns. Criminals will always have guns or find ways to get them, whether we accept it or not. Even in other countries where guns are completely illegal, criminals will simply manufacture or smuggle weapons. The Soviet Army was unable to successfully impose gun control on the small country of Afghanistan. In the United States of America today, criminals import weapons (guns) that law abiding citizens are banned from possessing. What would happen if a nation with guns in every household? The nation is Switzerland. The Swiss does not have to fight a foreign war for over hundreds of years (the last fight in Switzerland was a one month affair in 1847), and their crimes rate is among the lowest in the world. The United States of America can only envy their record. To carry a firearm in the state of California, it requires a permit commonly called Carry Concealed Weapons. CCWs are issued by the discretion of the chief of police of a city of the County, or a sheriff of the County, where the applicants live. As long as the applicants or individuals passes the background check provided by California Department of Justice (DOJ), and a chief of police or a sheriff may issue permit to applicants. In California where Carrying Concealed Weapons permits are obtainable, some studies reveal that the following: when more individuals were armed, the crime rates dropped down proportionally. It is not a surprise that when more citizens are armed there is less crimes. The examples from California and Switzerland were evidence to the fact. Some freedoms have already been lost in this country; can we afford to lose more? With many firearms regulations are now in the books, we do not need more gun control laws. We need to start enforcing the laws that we have now. The government put in place many gun control laws, but some of the laws were made to make the public feel safer. For instance the government has banned some assault rifles, but they were not even used for most gun related crimes. The government passed another law called the Bradey Law. The Bradey Law allows five day wait on the purchase of a handgun so a check can be done on the personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s background. None of these laws seem to decrease the amount of deaths caused by hand guns. The media play part in more laws being applied against guns and ammos. The media also helped to have bullets that may penetrate bulletproof armor get banned, but the bullets were made especially for law enforcement and licensed dealers. All of these laws should be made unconstitutional because it goes against individualsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ right to bear arms. They should find some other ways to deal with gun related crimes and violence. The United States of America was founded by people who believe that owning guns are to protect what they think is right. The constitution gives everyone the right to bear arms and protect themselves. Laws against guns should be unconstitutional but the laws were made because it is what some individuals want. The ban on assault rifles was in effect in the May of 1994. Many assault style weapons and broad categories encompassing many more semiautomatic firearms were among that were banned. Some weapons were banned, and were only used for three percent of all gun related crimes in 1993. Most of the crimes include murders were committed with handguns. The only reason for making to set these laws was to make the people feel good and safe. The reason for many to wait on obtain is to make sure no criminals or mentally disturbed individuals can buy guns. Did anybody really think that solve any of the problems? Many do not think so. The law prevented about 45 thousand individuals from getting guns. This number does not even compare to the number of deaths caused by guns. If the government really wants to stop the amount of killings, they would have to enforce gun education and enforce stricter punishment on murders. The media continue to play hugh part in gun control. If the news reported something was bad or wrong, people would always take their side and views. Rhino Bullets were banned also because of the media. What many individuals did not hear or understand was that they were for law enforcement officers and licensed dealers only. The bullets were banned because of lack of information. Society is the one who suffers because most people got the wrong image about the Rhino Bullets. When individuals are dealing with the interpretation of the Constitution, there are many views they can take. They can view the Constitution as a living document or in its original understanding. The main understanding that people are guided by is what the Framers of the Constitution had in mind when they created them. The Constitution may also be viewed as a living document, in which the interpretation should be surveyed in light of todays social and politics environments. Bill Clede ideas seem to be guild by the idea of the Constitution being a living document. When the Second Amendment was written, it already had a major impact on this country because state and national governments were unable, and were lacked the power to protect the people. The Amendment gave the power to the people to have guns for protection. As Mr. Clede points out, it was not the intent or purpose of the Amendment to give unlimited rights to the people. Many do not believe that the people are responsible enough to have the unlimited rights they seem to have under the second amendment. Clede stated that does not mean that the government can constitutionally prohibit all weapons, but it probably meant that the government can reasonably regulated and limit their use. Many individuals agreed with Cledes point. The nature of the Constitution is very vague. The second amendment stated that a well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of Free States, the right of the individuals to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. The Constitution never defined or gi ves examples of what a well-regulated militia is or types of weapons deemed reasonable for protection. It should be left to congress, or more importantly the Supreme Court to interrupt this vague language. Many individuals think that the government could reasonable regulate guns, without compromising the second amendment, but like Clede, some believe congress should concentrate more on who is using the guns and not guns themselves. Patrick Henry felt that all of us should preserve our public liberties, and if need be by force. Patrick Henry stated that the great objective is that, every man be armed. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams also had the same views as Patrick Henry that every man should have the right to own weapons (guns) for private self-defense. Our forefathers felt that it was very important for people to bear arms for protection of property, life, or limb. When they created a document that protected these rights, this seems to be evident because to right to bear arms is in the Second Amendment. Once again, this issue must be raised, and the forefathers foresee a time when this freedom that they embraced would not cause such wide-spread crime in the country. Individuals asked how can they maintain their individual rights, and yet get the guns out of the hands of convicted felons, drug addicts, and people who are mentally impaired from owning guns as Clede described. Many self-respect gun owners are i n favor of a waiting period before the purchasing of any type of gun. Clede has clearly taken the stand of some type of tighter control on the sale of weapons, but without touching the Second Amendment. A major problem that has been addressed in Cledes statement is that no matter what changes, the element in this country will always be, any individual be able to obtain guns. Perhaps individuals should take a closer look at the manufacture of guns and why they are manufactured in such abundance when the numbers of guns already surpass the population of this country. Although state and federal laws forbid the ownership of automatic weapons, but they can easily be obtained for the right price, and always to the criminals in our society. These are the problems that should be made aware of, not the outright banning of guns.